Religious Believers in Spain by Social Classes: Results over 268,261 Individuals: 2013 to 2022
Keywords:
Abstract
In March 2022, 60% of Spaniards identify themselves as religious (believers). This percentage is the lowest since data is available. In 2000, 80%, while in 2019 was 70%. Almost all people who define themselves as Believers indicate that they are Catholics (97%). The variability of religious identification is established by gender, age, educational attainment, and ideology. 102 data files from the CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, Spain) have been merged, obtaining a sample size of 340,532 interviewees between January 2013 and February 2022. This file also includes additional information on occupation, professional situation, and the economic activity of the respondents. From this information, a social class model has been generated (sample size of 268,261 respondents) following to Erikson, Goldthorpe & Portocarero (EGP) classification. The results show that religious identification varies significantly by social class: the higher the social class, the lower the religious identification.
Downloads
References
Arroyo, M. (2008). Individualización y Religión en la Europa católica. Revista Española de Sociología, 9, 61-85.
Google Scholar CrossrefAstor, A., & Damon, M. (2020). Culturalized religion: A synthetic review and agenda for research. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 59(2), 209-226. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12661
Google Scholar CrossrefAtkinson, A. (2018). Inequality: What Can Be Done? Harvard University Press.
Google Scholar CrossrefBeriain, J. (2015). Affirmative Genealogy of Religion from a Sociological Perspective. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 151, 3-22. https://doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.151.3
Google Scholar CrossrefBrañas-Garza, P.; García-Muñoz, T., & Neuman, S. (2011). Intergenerational Transmission of ‘Religious Capital’. Evidence from Spain. Revista Internacional de Sociología, 69(3), 649-677. https://doi.org/10.3989/ris.2010.06.28
Google Scholar CrossrefBruce, S., & Glendinning, T. (2010). When was secularization? Dating the decline of the British churches and locating its cause. British Journal of Sociology, 61(1), 107-126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2009.01304.x
Google Scholar CrossrefCabrera, L., Marrero, G., Rodríguez, J., & Salas-Rojo, P. (2021). Inequality of Opportunity in Spain: New Insights from New Data. Hacienda Pública Española/Review of Public Economics, 237(2/2021), 153-185. https://doi.org/10.7866/HPE-RPE.21.2.6
Google Scholar CrossrefCarabaña, J. (2016). Ricos y pobres. La desigualdad económica en España. La Catarata.
Google Scholar CrossrefCarabaña, J. (1999). Dos estudios sobre movilidad intergeneracional. Fundación Argentaria, Visor.
Google Scholar CrossrefCarabaña, J. (1995). Desigualdad y clases sociales. Un seminario en torno a Erik O. Wright. Fundación Argentaria, Visor.
Google Scholar CrossrefCasanova, J. (2021). Transnationalism and Religion: The European Union, from Christian-Democratic Project to Secular Cosmopolitanism, to Populist ‘Christian’ Neo-Nationalisms. In F. Höhne & T. Meireis (Eds.), Religion and Neo-Nationalism in Europe Baden. Nomos Verlag.
Google Scholar CrossrefCasanova, J. (2012). Genealogías de la secularización. Anthropos.
Google Scholar CrossrefCIS (2022, 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016, 2015, 2014, 2013 and others before). Barómetros y/o Macrobarómetros. Cuestionarios y Fichas Técnicas. http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/11_barometros/index.jsp
Google Scholar CrossrefClemenceau, L., Fernández, M., & Rodríguez, J. (2016). Análisis de esquemas de clasificación social basados en la ocupación desde una perspectiva teórico metodológica comparada. Documento 44. Instituto de Investigaciones Gino Germani. Universidad de Buenos Aires. http://iigg.sociales.uba.ar/http://iigg.sociales.uba.ar/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2019/11/dji44a.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefConway, B., & Spruyt, B. (2018). Catholic commitment around the globe: A 52-country analysis. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 57(2), 276-279. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12512
Google Scholar CrossrefCornejo, M. (2012). Religion and Spirituality, two opposing models? Post-catholic biographic patways among Soka Gakkai buddhists. Revista Internacional de Sociología, 70(2), 327-346. https://doi.org/10.3989/ris.2010.09.08
Google Scholar CrossrefCrockett, A., & Voas, D. (2006). Generations of decline: Religious change in twentieth-century Britain. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45(4), 567-584. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2006.00328.x
Google Scholar CrossrefDavie, G. (2007). Religion in Europe in the 21st century: The factors to take into account. European Journal of Sociology, 47(2), 271-296. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003975606000099
Google Scholar CrossrefDe Botton, L., & Pulido, M. (2013). Une Nouvelle Laïcité Multiculturelle. International and Multidisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences, 2(3), 236-256. https://doi.org/10.104471/rimcis.2013.23
Google Scholar CrossrefDíaz-Salazar, R. (2007). Democracia laica y religión pública. Taurus.
Google Scholar CrossrefDíez de Velasco, F. (2010). The Visibilization of Religious Minorities in Spain. Social Compass, 57, 235-252.
Google Scholar Crossrefhttps://doi.org/10.1177/0037768610362410
Google Scholar CrossrefDriezen, A., Verschraegen, G., & Clycq, N. (2021). Religion and everyday cosmopolitanism among religious and non-religious urban youth. Current Sociology, 69(6), 785-805. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392120932942
Google Scholar CrossrefErikson, R., Goldthorpe, J.H., & Portocarero, L. (1979). Intergenerational Class Mobility in Three Western European Societies. England. France and Sweden. The British Journal of Sociology, 30(4), 415-430.
Google Scholar CrossrefErikson, R., Goldthorpe, J.H., & Portocarero, L. (1982). Social Fluidity in Industrial Nations: England, France and Sweden. The British Journal of Sociology, 33(1), 1-34. https://doi.org/10.2307/589335
Google Scholar CrossrefErikson, R., Goldthorpe, J.H., & Portocarero, L. (2010). Intergenerational class mobility and the convergence thesis: England, France and Sweden. The British Journal of Sociology, 61(S1), 185-219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2009.01246.x
Google Scholar CrossrefEstruch, J., Gómez, J., Griera, M., & Iglesias, A. (2007). Las otras religiones. Minorías religiosas en Cataluña. Icaria.
Google Scholar CrossrefEvans, M.D.R., & Kelley, J. (2021). Diversity in Religiosity Undermines Conventional Personal Morality Across the Globe: Evidence from 90 Nations, 300,000+ Individuals. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 61(1), 41-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12756
Google Scholar CrossrefFerrara, C. (2019). The Catholic-ness of Secular France. EuropeNow Daily, Council for European Studies.
Google Scholar Crossrefhttps://www.europenowjournal.org/2019/10/02/the-catholic-ness-of-secular-france/
Google Scholar CrossrefFlanagan, K., & Jupp, P.C. (Eds.) (2007). A Sociology of Spirituality. Ashgate.
Google Scholar CrossrefGil Gimeno, J. (2017). Secularizaciones múltiples. Sociología Histórica, 7, 291-319. https://revistas.um.es/sh/article/view/237211/222051
Google Scholar CrossrefGil-Hernández, C., Vidal-Lorda, G., & Torrejón-Pérez, S. (2022). Social Classes in the Digital Age: Technological Change, Social Inequalities and the Social Contract (DIGCLASS). JRC Working Papers Series on Social Classes in the Digital Age, 2022/03. European Commission.
Google Scholar Crossrefhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/360783625_Technology_Tasks_and_Social_Classes_in_Europe
Google Scholar CrossrefGoldthorpe, J.H. (2010). Class analysis and the reorientation of class theory: the case of persisting differentials in educational attainment. The British Journal of Sociology, 61(S1), 311-335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2009.01248.x
Google Scholar CrossrefGoldthorpe, J.H. (2013). Understanding – and Misunderstanding – Social Mobility in Britain: The Entry of Economists, the Confusion of Politicians and the Limits of Educational Policy. Journal of Social Policy, 42(3), 431-450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279411300024X
Google Scholar CrossrefGonzález-Anleo, J. (2016). La indiferencia enemiga: jóvenes, religión e iglesia en la última oleada de secularización en España. Razón y Fe 274(1416), 323-332. https://revistas.comillas.edu/index.php/razonyfe/article/view/9455
Google Scholar CrossrefGriera, M., Martínez-Ariño, J., & Clot-Garrell, A. (2021). Banal Catholicism, Morality Policies and the Politics of Belonging in Spain. Religions, 12, 293. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12050293
Google Scholar CrossrefGrusky, D.B. (2014). Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological Perspective. Routledge.
Google Scholar CrossrefIECA (Instituto de Estadística y Cartografía de Andalucía) (2018a). Encuesta de Movilidad Social en Andalucía. https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/encsocial/2017/
Google Scholar CrossrefIECA (2018b). Encuesta de Movilidad Social en Andalucía. Metodología. https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/encsocial/2017/metodologia/metodologia.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefILO (International Labour Organization) (2012). International Standard Classification of Occupations: ISCO-08. International Labour Office (ILO). http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/isco/isco08/index.htm
Google Scholar CrossrefINE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística) (2022a). National Income: Results. Spain. Instituto Nacional de Estadística https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Tabla.htm?t=30683&L=0
Google Scholar CrossrefINE (2022b). GDP mp Income (current prices). Spain. Instituto Nacional de Estadística https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Tabla.htm?t=30682&L=1
Google Scholar CrossrefINE (2022c). Calculation of the Consumer Price Index percentage changes (CPI system base 2021). Instituto Nacional de Estadística. https://www.ine.es/varipc/index.do
Google Scholar CrossrefINE (2022d). Population figures. Final data on 1 January 2021 and provisional data on 1 July 2021. Spain. Instituto Nacional de Estadística. https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Tabla.htm?t=9691
Google Scholar CrossrefINE (2022e). Average anual earning (euros) per worker and gender in Spain. Instituto Nacional de Estadística. https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=28186
Google Scholar CrossrefInglehart, R., & Foa, R. (2010). Religión y valores en una era globalizada, in AAVV (2010). Las múltiples caras de la globalización. Fundación BBVA. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/articulos/religion-y-valores-en-la-era-globalizada/
Google Scholar CrossrefItçaina, X. (2019). The Spanish Catholic Church, the public sphere, and the economic recession: rival legitimacies? Journal of Contemporary Religion, 34(1), 153-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2019.1585127
Google Scholar CrossrefKelley, J., & Evans, M.D.R. (2017). Societal Inequality and individual subjective well-being: Results from 68 societies and over 200,000 individuals, 1981–2008. Social Sciences Research, 62(February), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.04.020
Google Scholar CrossrefKerbo, H.R. (2012). Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective. 8th ed. McGraw-Hill.
Google Scholar CrossrefMarqués, I. (2015). La movilidad social en España. Los libros de La Catarata.
Google Scholar CrossrefMartín-Huete, F. (2015). La persistencia de la secularización en la era de la desecularización. Pamplona, Navarra, Universidad Pública de Navarra. Tesis Doctoral.
Google Scholar CrossrefMartínez-Ariño, J., Griera, M., García-Romeral, G., & Forteza, M. (2011). Inmigración, diversidad religiosa y centros de culto en la ciudad de Barcelona. Migraciones, 30, 101-133.
Google Scholar Crossrefhttps://revistas.comillas.edu/index.php/revistamigraciones/article/view/81
Google Scholar CrossrefMarrero, G.A., & Servén, L. (2021). Growth, Inequality and Poverty: a robust relationship? Empirical Economics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-021-02152-x
Google Scholar CrossrefMijs, J. (2021). The paradox of inequality: Income inequality and belief in meritocracy go hand in hand. Socio-Economic Review, 19(1), 7-35. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwy051
Google Scholar CrossrefMolénat, X. (2014). Une religion à la carte. In Molénat, Xavier (éd.). 2014. L'Individu contemporain. Regards sociologiques. Auxerre, Éditions Sciences Humaines, «Synthèse»: 149-152. Available online date until May 2022: https://doi.org/10.3917/sh.molen.2014.01.0149"
Google Scholar CrossrefMolteni, F., & Ferruccio, B. (2018). Shifts in religiosity across cohorts in Europe: A multilevel and multidimensional analysis based on the European Values Study. Social Compass, 65, 413-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768618772969
Google Scholar CrossrefObadia, L. (2014). Paradoxes, utopies et cécités du modernisme en religión. Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions. http://journals.openedition.org/assr/26228
Google Scholar CrossrefOECD (2018). A Broken Social elevator? How to Promote Social Mobility. https://www.oecd.org/social/soc/Social-mobility-2018-Overview-MainFindings.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefOECD (2017). How’s Life in Spain? https://www.oecd.org/statistics/Better-Life-Initiative-country-note-Spain.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefOECD (2016). The Productivity-Inclusiveness Nexus. https://www.oecd.org/inclusive-growth/publications/The-Productivity-Inclusiveness-Nexus-Preliminary.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefPalard, J. (2002). Religion et politique dans l'Europe du Sud: Permanence et changement. Pôle Sud. Religion et Politique, 17, 23-44.
Google Scholar Crossrefhttps://www.persee.fr/doc/pole_1262-1676_2002_num_17_1_1283
Google Scholar CrossrefPalomino, J.C., Marrero, G.A., & Rodríguez, J.G. (2019). Channels of inequality of opportunity: The role of education and occupation in Europe. Social Indicators Research, 143, 1045-1074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-2008-y
Google Scholar CrossrefPanadero, H., Gilart, G., & Ortí, C. (2022). Informe Ferrer i Guàrdia 2021. Feminismos, religiones y libertad de conciencia. Fundació Ferrer i Guàrdia. https://www.ferrerguardia.org/es/actividades/noticias/1084-pandemia-acelera-perdida-religiosidad-espana-no-creyentes-aumentan-hasta-37-informe-ferrer-guardia-2021
Google Scholar CrossrefPérez-Agote, A. (2014). The notion of secularization: Drawing the boundaries of its contemporary scientific validity. Current Sociology, 62(6), 886-904. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392114533333
Google Scholar CrossrefPérez-Agote, A. (2012). Cambio religioso en España: los avatares de la secularización. Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS). Colección Monografías nº276
Google Scholar CrossrefPérez-Agote, A. (2009). Les trois vagues de la sécularisation des consciences en Espagne. Social Compass, 56(2), 189-201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768609103353
Google Scholar CrossrefPérez-Agote, A. (2007). El proceso de secularización en la sociedad española. Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals, 77, 65-82.
Google Scholar CrossrefPérez-Agote, A., & Santiago-García, J.A. (2005). La situación de la Religión en España a principios del siglo XXI. Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS). Colección Opiniones y Actitudes nº49.
Google Scholar CrossrefPollack, D. (2008). Religious change in Europe: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. Social Compass, 55, 168–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768607089737
Google Scholar CrossrefRequena, M., & Stanek, N. (2015). Las clases sociales en España: cambio, composición y consecuencias. In A. Blanco, A. Chueca & G. Bombardieri (Eds.), Informe España 2015 (pp. (487-518). Fundación Encuentro / Centro de Estudios del Cambio Social (CECS).
Google Scholar CrossrefRiccardi, A. (2022). La Iglesia arde: la crisis del cristianismo hoy: entre la agonía y el resurgimiento. Arpa.
Google Scholar CrossrefRose, D., & Harrison, E. (2010). Social Class in Europe. An introduction to the European Socio-economic Classification. Routledge.
Google Scholar CrossrefRuiz, R. (2022). La secularización en España. Rupturas y cambios religiosos desde la Sociología Histórica. Cátedra.
Google Scholar CrossrefRuiz, R. (2017). El proceso de secularización de la sociedad Española (1960-2010): entre la Historia y la memoria. Revista de Historia Contemporánea, 16, 207-232. https://doi.org/10.14198/pasado2017.16.09
Google Scholar CrossrefUNESCO (2012). International Standard Classification of Education. ISCED 2011. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/international-standard-classification-of-education-isced-2011-en.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefUrrutia, G. (2016). Minorías religiosas y derechos humanos. Reconocimiento social y gestión pública del pluralismo religioso en el País Vasco. Akal.
Google Scholar CrossrefVoas, D., & Chaves, M. (2016). Is the United States a counterexample to the secularization thesis? American Journal of Sociology, 121(5), 1517-1552. https://doi.org/10.1086/684202
Google Scholar CrossrefVoas, D., & Crockett, A. (2005). Religion in Britain: Neither believing nor belonging. Sociology, 39(1), 11-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038505048998
Google Scholar CrossrefWohlrab-Sahr, M., & Burchardt, M. (2012). Multiple secularities: Toward a cultural sociology of secular modernities. Comparative Sociology, 11, 875-909. https://doi.org/10.1163/156911330-12341249
Google Scholar CrossrefWood, M. (2009). The nonformative elements of religious life: Questioning the Sociology of Spirituality Paradigm. Social Compass, 56, 237-48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768609103359
Google Scholar CrossrefPublished
Almetric
Dimensions
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 International and Multidisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are published under Creative Commons copyright (CC BY). Authors hold the copyright and retain publishing rights without restrictions, but authors allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute, and/or copy articles as the original source is cited.
