ime is an undeniably important factor
in anyone’s life and professional projects. In the academic context this variable
attracts maximum attention from teachers and families who see students’ efficient
use of time as a strategy to be used for confronting the different and complex academic
activities found in the different educational stages, especially in secondary and
higher education. Times for learning in formal educational settings are often subjected
to constraints, the timetables and deadlines for activities ruled by the teaching
time clash with the students’ forced work pace. Academic stress among students has
increased in recent years and will be chronic in a very high percentage of young
people by 2021, according to the WHO.
In 2017 the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) conducted research on
a sample of 540,000 students aged 15 and 16 from 72 different countries. Sixty-six
percent of students reported feeling stressed by low grades, with 59% stating frequent
worry about taking difficult exams. In addition, 55% of students reported anxiety
about school tests, even when they felt prepared. In short, the data show how the
dynamics of academic life and performance are a major cause of stress for students
(OECD, 2017).
Therefore, tackling the problem
of students’ efficient use of time without considering the above could result in
rash, unrealistic conclusions and, even worse, stereotypical representations of
teenagers and young people. These distorted images could lead to almost all the
responsibility falling on the students themselves, based on the assumption that
an underlying lack of will, motivation or skills is to blame when students state
that they “feel pressured,” “work against the clock” or find that they “have no
time.”
The truth is that the school
model has evolved over time into a competitive framework. In temporal terms, speed
logically has to be adopted. In cultural terms this means adopting post-materialist
values (Inglehart, 1971) of the liquid society (Bauman, 2007/2009), the performance society (Han, 2012), and the lightness civilization (Lipovetsky, 2016).
Paradoxically, this lightness
also “nourishes the spirit of heaviness” (Lipovetsky, 2016, p. 15), depending on the subject’s ability to overcome
adversities in life by making personal use of their resources. Lightness and heaviness are two sides of the
same coin, according to Lipovetsky (2016). On the one hand, a society that cultivates individual freedom and comfort
through the experience of the present time. On the other hand, the society of heaviness,
which comes from a narcissistic culture that needs to emphasise lightness; that
is, presentism and individuality.
In this spirit of heaviness,
the hidden facet of performance society “produces depressives and failures” (Han, 2012). For most young people of this generation
the values of personal accomplishment and effort are guarantees of success. Positive
attitudes from young people are linked to the concept of accomplishment and reward
for effort, values instilled at home and reinforced in school settings in which
the effective use of time and the ability for organization are essential.
The culture of effort, play
an extremely important role in schools on a daily basis. However, it should be noted
that this excessive positivity also results in disorders, which are harmful to students’
mental health and affect their self-esteem and academic performance.
The theoretical framework from which our object
of study is approached is indebted to sociocultural (Elias, 1984/1989) and critical (Han, 2012; Rosa, 1989/2016) approaches applied to the analysis of time.
As effective time management
is correlated with performance society and self-disciplined individuals, this article
aims to provide a critical analysis of dominant scientific narratives on the effective
use of time by students. This analysis aims to establish whether the research community
mirrors this dominant social narrative.
To that end an initial analysis
of the implicit assumptions made by researchers is conducted, followed by a summary
of scientific evidence using a multidisciplinary approach. Finally, to complete
the critical study, an inductive critical analysis is applied to publications from
the last thirty years.
Scientific Narratives on the Effective Use of Time by Students
The study of time management in
different fields has provided a wide range of results. Scientific narratives are
a valuable resource for detailing how “they christen the problem” and generating
plausible explanations. Different epistemic schemes can be used to analyze a single
phenomenon. The following section aims to provide a comprehensive interpretation
of the construct of “time management”.
The Neuroscientific Approach
Behaviors associated with planning,
setting goals and prioritizing tasks are linked to brain function. Executive functions
are in charge of the cognitive control of behavior, including basic cognitive processes
such as attentional control, cognitive inhibition, work memory and cognitive flexibility
(Lezak, 1995). The implementation of these superior functions
requires the simultaneous use of other basic executive functions such as cognitive
flexibility and planning, which are directly linked to time management.
Dysfunction in some of these
functions, such as planning, would explain why school students diagnosed with Attention
Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) find it difficult to plan, organize and
prioritize tasks and manage study time (Rohde et al., 2019). Due to dysfunction in activation, which plays a part
in organizing tasks and materials, calculating time, and prioritizing and initially
preparing work, students with ADHD are more likely to display heightened procrastination
patterns. Postponement is the avoidance strategy most commonly used by school students
with ADHD.
In the field of neuroscience,
behaviorally, time management is a skill, which results from correct dynamics in
the chemistry and operation of the brain. When these dynamics are dysfunctional,
difficulties can be observed in the ability to plan and organize time (Seli & Dembo, 2019). Therefore, ADHD is not so much a problem
of will as the result of problems stemming from the dynamics of brain chemistry.
The Psychological Approach
Psychological examination of the
study of time management provides a different interpretation of this construct.
Although concepts vary, they all share the same narrative concerning the important
role of these skills in decision-making processes. Essentially, in psychological
research time management has been defined and operates on the basis of three categories:
i) as metacognitive strategies for self-regulation (Chuvgunova & Kostromina, 2016; Garzón Umerenkova et al., 2017; Liu et al.,
2009); ii) as a result
of the adoption of a specific temporal perspective (Bajec, 2019); iii) as an acquired behavior or pattern which can be
trained and modified (MacCann et
al., 2012).
Studies on the self-regulation
of learning and the strategic use of time by students reflect this close relationship.
The Pintrich model (Pintrich,
2004) incorporates the
time management of study into behavior strategies. The strategic use of academic
time allows students to make decisions on key aspects of the study process: effort,
setting up short- and medium-term work plans, calculating the time it would take
to complete different academic activities.
Another line of research studies
the effective use of time, explained by the temporal perspective adopted by the
students when undertaking academic and personal actions and projects. The concept
of temporal perspective is understood as an unconscious and subjective behavioral
factor which allows individuals to manage their time and refers to the dominant
trend among students in focusing on the past, present or future. Thus, an effective
organization of time is not so much a matter of skill in the strategic use of time,
but the way in which students give their individual experience coherence and meaning
by coding it into temporal categories (Boyd & Zimbardo, 2005).
Forward-looking behavior is
associated with responsibility, goals, and meeting deadlines, as well as the general
concern for the later consequences of this behavior. Educational research developed
following the theory of temporal perspective has shown that the future perspective
is an important predictor in students’ strategic use of academic time. In contrast,
a fatalistic view of the present reveals a disheartened, defenseless and negative
stance with regards to the future and life in general, in addition to a lack of
temporal orientation. Volitional and affective self-regulation is closely linked
to the predominance of the forward-looking temporal perspective (Burns et al., 2021).
Additionally, the temporal
perspective theory developed by Nuttin (1980) and Nuttin and Lens (1985) highlights the roles of the psychological
perspective of time in decision-making processes and in explaining human behavior.
The work of Kruger et al. (2008) stresses that the temporal perspective is
a psychological mechanism enabling human functional and adaptive development.
A third set of psychological
studies describes the construct of time management as a skill which needs to be
exercised, practiced and automated. Time management is understood as skills in the
effective administration of study time and is included with others in the category
of study skills. This is the basic narrative of most psycho-educational interventions
to improve students’ study habits, as the effective use of time is the factor with
the most impact on the academic performance and mental well-being of students. Research
by De Jager (2014) shows that only 18% of students aged 16-21
are skilled in organizing their study time.
The Sociological Approach
Sociological studies combine different
narratives interlinked by a common guiding thread: the social substratum characteristic
of the information society which transforms the uses of time and the temporal experience
of individuals. In terms of productivity, time management has been linked to “doing
more in a shorter space of time”. Information overload, which in turn leads to a
lack of attention, immediacy and acceleration since performance guidelines, as well
as connectivity, reinforce the importance of time management as a strategy for coordinating
with the remaining social times. On the one hand, learning to manage time correctly
promotes social assimilation and integration. On the other, it protects the individual
from the processes of acceleration (Rosa, 2011), flexibility and dilution of the temporal
experience (Bauman, 2007/2009).
For children and teenagers,
school becomes an instance of temporal literacy. Students adapt to the temporal
structure of school through social practices such as the teachers’ control of time
and their own autonomous time management. This temporal literacy takes the form
of a temporal grammar based on individual responsibility and a temporal horizon
geared to an accelerated and flexible future. In behavioral terms this is the expression
of a new disciplinary strategy (Foucault,
1969/1978), which takes
the form of social practices subordinate to productive time. This self-regulation
of time, as opposed to the control of time, becomes a tool for disciplining hyperculture.
Romo Parra (2012, p. 28) illustrates this idea when stating that “we
inherit the concept of time as an economic factor, essentially monetary, and as
its price goes up, it makes us think of it as a scarce resource”.
However, our current interpretation
of time has been modified by the phenomenon of temporal acceleration (Rosa, 2011, 1989/2016). Educational time is subordinate to productive
time. The former expands the temporality of the subjects while the latter makes
it possible to perform better in a shorter time. The consequences can be
observed in the school pace, and as with time, the academic pace has sped up considerably.
Thus, following Rosa (2011), the individual experience of time is affected: time
is seen as a precious commodity and time and stress pressures are heightened. In
keeping with Rosa (2011, p.
20) time is considered
scarce when “speed is doubled and the distance to be covered is quadrupled,” leading
to a need for doubling or tripling the time employed in undertaking and coordinating
everyday activities. The “slippery slope” phenomenon formulated by Rosa (2011) explains this process: “a capitalist cannot stop and
rest, stop the race and make sure of their position (…) because stopping is the
same as being left behind” (p. 21).
Against this backdrop of acceleration,
learning to self-regulate time is both liberating and oppressive to the individual
(Bunn et al., 2019).
Fear of “not being left behind”
reinforces acceleration due to the demands for speed and flexibility in the social
and productive spheres. This acceleration is also accompanied by a dominant ideology
based on individual freedom, and with it “the rhetoric of obligation “I have
to” which now is not based on the rhetoric of progress, but on the inherent
need of a competitive world” (Rosa,
2011, p. 31).
The academic pace of students
has continued to speed up in the last decade (Hakanen et al., 2006). For instance, the flexibility afforded by new technologies
to children and teenagers in school has not led to an increase in free time or more
balanced mental, affective, cognitive and social conditions. In fact, stress indices
have increased among school students. Excessive responsibilities, heavy workloads
and tasks both within and outside school, teacher assessments, competitiveness,
fear of failure, family pressures, changes in dietary habits and sleep patterns,
and cognitive exhaustion are just some of the precursors to stress in school.
The Pedagogic Approach
The pedagogic narrative on effective
academic time management is mostly driven by psychological interpretations linking
the construct to skills which can be learned and improved through practice and technique,
currently including technological devices such as digital calendars and planners.
In addition, a socially shared normative interpretation views efficient organization
of academic time as an indicator of personal maturity and academic competence. The
abundance of titles in pedagogic publications correlating the efficient organization
and administration of academic time with successful, excellent or good students
is hardly surprising.
Improving students’ time management
skills is not just part of the teaching function of schools as mediators for the
constitution of human capital required by the job market. From the perspective of
socialization, this learning at school is also a form of early learning in preparation
for adult life and the professional world. Moreover, it is a type of learning which
maximizes autonomy and the potential for action and decision-making.
The pedagogic approach combines
this discourse of efficiency and performance with the normative discourse of the
good student. Making good use of time, planning tasks in the short and medium
term, setting longer-term academic and life goals, and acting diligently and in
an orderly fashion showcase the habits and strengths of the character of the good
student (De Bofarull,
2019). The Aristotelian
tradition, education as a way of building character based on the practice of virtuous
habits, has been integrated into Positive Psychology through the writings of Peterson
and Seligman (2004) on distinct forces and their relationship
with happiness. The habit of efficient time management is linked to the virtue of
courage or bravery, representing the will to reach objectives through perseverance
and diligence.
Hegemonic Scientific Evidence of Efficient Time Management
In Academic Settings
While scientific narratives allow
facts to be interpreted, scientific evidence represents the facts observed as a
part of a particular mental and cultural framework. Scientific theories are sophisticated
cognitive complexes occurring in the framework of research programs which find their
origin both in empirical evidence and in a given historic-scientific and sociocultural
context. The apparent linear connection between scientific theory and evidence is
disavowed if we analyze this relationship, emphasizing the context in which the
theory was established. At this level the connection between theory and empirical
evidence is expressed through the interpretation and ontological, epistemological,
methodological and ethical decision-making of the scientific community.
A common guiding thread can
be observed in the dominant scientific narratives on time management among students:
an epistemology in the third person with thin descriptions (interpretations of facts
which follow the prejudices or regimens of truth of the scientific community) and
lacking in thick descriptions (interpretations of facts based on the significance
which agents attribute to their actions) (Geertz, 1973). Moreover, the available evidence generated in the predominant
research program is mostly psychological and geared towards the individual. It pays
less attention to evidence that is sociocultural (lifestyle, predominant values,
temporal cultures), pedagogic (school culture, teaching styles, support systems
for students) and ergonomic (mental overload of students), all of which necessarily
influence the practices applied by students for efficient time management.
The prevailing views available
in research on academic time management prioritize soft internalizing explanations
in education and an almost resigned assumption that students experience difficulties
in efficient time management due to executive dysfunctions, the adoption of unsuitable
study strategies or a lack of willingness on their part. An exception to the interpretation
of these findings is the study by Strom et al. (2016) pinpointing the academic institution and lifestyles of students as factors
explaining their unsuitable handling of time. The values of performance society
and consumerist society are reflected in academic practices, especially in middle
and high school. An excess of activities (school and afterschool), too little sleep,
an excessive exam load, the intensive use of technologies for students and their
impact on free time are factors to be taken into account in the research and actions
aimed at improving students’ academic time management skills.
Everything suggests that now
more than ever an efficient management of study time is working “against the clock”
and making use of critical media literacy. However, scientific research suggests
otherwise. Learning to efficiently manage time requires a suitable strategy to increase
self-control, reduce stress and improve academic performance (Burrus et al., 2017; Won &
Yu, 2018).
Method
Search Strategies
Figure 1. Flowchart of literature selection process
A literature review was carried
out to gain more in-depth knowledge of the narratives and accounts provided by researchers
regarding students’ academic time management. The keywords selected were extracted
from ERIC and the search timeline comprised papers published between 1990 and 2021.
The search databases selected were Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus. The search terms
were combined based on the following expressions (time management AND: students;
race; minority groups; gender differences; ADHD; disabilities; primary education;
secondary education; higher education; undergraduate education).
Creation of a File
A file was created with five columns containing
the most relevant information for the analysis of results:
·
References: authors and
year of publication
·
Database from which the
papers were obtained
·
Study design
·
Sample and country
·
Relevant results and conclusions
The complete file is hosted at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.19657716. In the end, only a total of 51 sources were
referenced and included in this article’s References marked by an *.
Results
The dominant scientific narratives
around time management by students are consistent with the values and lifestyles
characteristic of the performance society.
Time is Precious
The studies on academic time management
by the student are based on an economicist interpretation of time. Academic efficiency
is attained when the student makes an effective use of time (Razali et al., 2018).
In addition, most of the studies
analyzed refer to research examining the skills for organization and effective use
of time among students in secondary and higher education (Amida et al., 2021; Awadalla et al., 2017; DiPipi-Hoy
et al., 2009; Eldeleklioğlu et al, 2010; Dolan et al., 2015; Hensley et
al., 2021; Pottinger et al., 2009; Rogers, 2013; Sansgiry
et al., 2004; Tabvuma et al., 2021; Tops et al., 2020; Trueman & Hartley, 1996; Wennberg et al., 2018; Wilson et al., 2021). This suggests that these educational stages
are the ones which have adapted to the economy of time the fastest. This time requires
productive actions to be executed promptly and diligently. In addition, as the time
of academic learning is no longer restricted by timetables or institutions, given
the flexibility provided by new technologies, the importance of the skills for the
efficient management of academic time has increased (Martin et al., 2020; Nonis et al., 2006). Flexibility and acceleration lead to the
phenomenon of multitasking and any student unable to adapt to this new setting of
academic productivity will be at a greater risk of failing or dropping out from
school.
Learning to Work Against the
Clock
As stated, temporal acceleration
has led to changes in subjectivity. The faster pace of academic work has intensified
for both students and teachers. The logic of haste is imperative to carrying out
an increasingly higher number of actions in an increasingly shorter length of time.
The consequences for the academic performance and psychological well-being of the
students are closely connected and tend to affect girls more than boys (De Paola and Gioia, 2016; Kuang-Tsan and Fu-Yuan, 2017). It is possible that the gender differences
and the ways to confront time pressure might be due to the higher number of activities
carried out by girls in the home compared to their male peers, whose socialization
focuses more on productivity values. The irregularity of the temporal socialisation
in which boys and girls have been educated, is also a factor to be taken into consideration
by the authors.
Efficient Time Management and
Discourse of Deviation
The impact of temporal acceleration
on students has led to academic institutions incorporating support programs for
students which focus on time management (Bellman et al., 2015). Thus, the actions geared towards the development of
the necessary skills for efficient time management are especially aimed at students
whose behavior deviates from the mean or norm required. In the case of the school
and college, this comprises students suffering from ADHD, dyslexia, cognitive difficulties,
developmental disorders and other learning difficulties (Abikoff et al., 2013; Breaux et al., 2019; Davies et al., 2002; Deng & Xuan, 2009; Evans et al., 2016; Giust & Valle-Riesta, 2017; Green et al., 2011; Janeslätt et al., 2014; Keptner & Rogers, 2019; Kirby et al., 2008; LaCount et al., 2018; Langberg et al., 2013; Lewandowski et al., 2013; Martin et al., 2020; Persson et al., 2017; Prevatt et al., 2017; Reed & Jones, 2021; Reed & Kennett, 2017; Sauvé et al., 2016; Siddiqi & Memon, 2016; Solanto & Scheres, 2021). It is also useful for adult university students
who have to combine their studies and work or students from ethnic minorities (Keptner & Rogers, 2019; Meeuwisse et al., 2013; Schatzel et al., 2013).
However, the studies selected—with
their psychological and economicist interpretation of time—do not reflect that the
dynamics of temporal acceleration are structural and that they therefore do not
only affect individuals but also institutions. By juggling with time processes through
timetables and calendars as well as through the flexibility not offered by ICTs
in terms of timetabling and space, educational institutions regulate academic activities.
The logic of productivity and flexibility has provided students with a new way to
experience time in academic settings (Mukhtar et al, 2020). As
in the professional world, this new logic has increased the volume for students.
Educational institutions have adopted a synchronization mechanism similar to these
new performance and flexibility demands, which lead to disciplinary regulations
for members of the institution. Time is no longer experienced as a process but rather
lived like a race “against the clock.” On an individual scale it demands great self-discipline
in terms of time as learning to manage time efficiently is now like learning to
avoid the phenomenon of temporal acceleration.
Conclusions
The critical analysis of the scientific
narratives and evidence on academic time management by students leads to the following
conclusions. Firstly, the hegemony of the economicist and individualist discourse
in the research carried out and the erosion of socio-cultural discourses which offer
scientific evidence on the impact of the dynamics of acceleration and pressure in
students’ effective use of academic time. The studies selected present a predominantly
positivist epistemological orientation in which time is a discrete and quantifiable
unit. In addition, the relative lack of qualitative studies on the topic examined
should be highlighted.
Secondly, the management of
academic time as a malleable and trainable skill at the service of the academic
performance and mental well-being of the students has been examined. However, these
studies do not specify how far the difficulties for correct time management can
be explained, not only as a neurocognitive or cognitive dysfunction attributable
to the individual, but as the result of the effects of the collision of two types
of time: institutional time, ruled by speed and productivity, and the subjective
time of the students themselves, ruled by paces, expectations, goals, and temporal
perspectives.
This phenomenon, which has
a significant social impact, is conditioned by the values, culture and social and
instructional factors of each environment (Bennett & Burke, 2018). All interfere with the
conception of time, on its consideration in a dual personal and social nature, which
pervades the individual commitment to the fulfillment of tasks, whether daily ones
or other medium- or long-term tasks undertaken. In this path towards self-regulation,
the level of procrastination shown by students acquires enormous value, considering
their potential to delay and, more importantly, to postpone those tasks that must
be completed within a given period (Tuckman, 2003). In any event, “time management is a learned skill and
therefore susceptible to intervention, which multiplies its importance in preventing
procrastination” (Garzón Umerenkova
& Gil Flores, 2017, p. 9). Found in several texts and narratives in this study,
this perspective underscores willingness, which is a good motivator in time management,
on the one hand, and awareness of students with attention deficit disorders who,
however, find time management difficult to regulate on the other.
Finally, a lack of studies
analyzing the conditions in which the study of academic time management is now carried
out on institutional level has been observed. Linking the analysis of students’
organizational skills with the academic demands, lifestyles and new student profiles,
particularly at university level, could offer a more comprehensive vision of these
time organization and management skills. Although twenty-four hours are the same
for everyone, efficient management of this time remains unequal. And it is so not
only because of individual differences, but because of the institutional barriers
and cultural gaps behind this. Hence it is easier to understand that for part-time
students, mature students, ethnic minorities and students with special needs and
learning difficulties, learning to organize and manage academic time effectively
is an exercise of compensation and resilience for handling the temporal dynamic
they face, rather than a strategy for their own self-determination and self-development.
If we take an economistic and
psycho-pedagogical approach, there are several studies that demonstrate the close
relationship between the nature of time and student performance. This approach based
on Carroll's model (1963) or on what is known as “effective learning
time” (Abadzi, 2009; Aronson et al., 1998) has, in recent decades, shaped a certain trend in time
management leading to productive time and excellence. This model will be truly successful
if the expectations regarding the quantity and quality of this time are met or,
in other words, if there is a consideration of time as both quantity and meaning
(Husti, 1992). However, the influence of several indicators
on the final result must be assessed in order to achieve this objective. Among them
are the motivation of the agents participating in the instruction, the value of
the knowledge and the resources available, all of which are part of effective time.
However, studies have also shown that neither this notoriety nor the relationship
between performance and time has been demonstrated, but rather the opposite, and
therefore, there is little or no connection between time spent and improved results
(Horng et al., 2010). In short, the way we manage time today involves
several variables, attitudes and the mindset of our past. Similarly, studies continue
to be published, including those with a phenomenological approach, which demonstrate
that adverse childhood experiences influence the academic performance of both younger
and university students (Hall et al.,
2021). The values of
the past determine the value of future time.
Technologies and especially
digital technology will increasingly play a greater role in this future time, since
it undeniably permeates everyone's life and particularly that of students, throughout
the different stages of their education. They establish a close relationship between
time and digital competence and where good use or misuse of it can affect the effectiveness
of the work that results. As acknowledged by Galindo-Domínguez and Bezanilla (2021), those students who manage their time better
and even get better academic results owe it to a better use of digital competence.
Racing against the clock creates a handicap in this task that not only affects the
knowledge acquired but also shapes the basis for future education.
Funding
The authors received
financial support for the publication of this article by the VII Plan Propio de
la Universidad de Sevilla (Spain). Vicerrectorado de Investigación. Acción I.1A.
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Clara Romero-Pérez is Associate Professor
in Education at the University of Seville, Spain. Her current research
interests are time, emotions, epistemological issues in educational research.
Encarnación Sánchez-Lissen is Associate Professor in
Education at the University of Seville, Spain. Her current research interests
are comparative analysis of students’ time management.
Email: clararomero@us.es
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